Wireless router

The centerpiece product of many home computer networks is a wireless router. These routers support all home computers configured with wireless network adapters see below. They also contain a network switch to allow some computers to be connected with Ethernet cables. Wireless routers allow cable modem and DSL Internet connections to be shared. Additionally, many wireless router products include a builtin firewall that protects the home network from intruders.


Illustrated above is the Linksys compare prices. This is a popular wireless router product based on the WiFi network standard. Wireless routers are small boxlike devices generally less than in length, with LED lights on the front and with connection ports on the sides or back. Some wireless routers like the feature external antennas that protrude from the top of the device; others contain builtin antennas.Wireless router products differ in the network protocols they support, or a combination, in the number of wired device connections they support, in the security options they support, and in many other smaller ways. Generally only one wireless router is required to network an entire household. A wireless access point sometimes called an AP or WAP serves to join or "bridge" wireless clients to a wired Ethernet network. Access points centralize all WiFi clients on a local network in socalled infrastructure mode. An access point in turn may connect to another access point, or to a wired Ethernet router.

Wireless access points are commonly used in large office buildings to create one wireless local area network WLAN that spans a large area. Each access point typically supports up client computers. By connecting access points to each other, local networks having thousands of access points can be created. Client computers may move or roam between each of these access points as needed. In home networking, wireless access points can be used to extend an existing home network based on a wired broadband router. The access point connects to the broadband router, allowing wireless clients to join the home network without needing to rewire or re-configure the Ethernet connections.
As illustrated by the Linksys compare prices shown above, wireless access points appear physically similar to wireless routers. Wireless routers actually contain a wireless access point as part of their overall package. Like wireless routers, access points are available with support for or combinations.

Window firewell

Windows Firewall is a free network firewall software application for Windows XP, introduced in Windows XP Service Pack. Older version of Windows XP contained a different software firewall called Internet Connection Firewall ICF. Windows Firewall replaces Internet Connection Firewall and offers significant improvements over its predecessor. Windows Firewall comprises both a firewall application, a Windows service called ipnathlp, and a Security Center service called wscsvc. The Windows Firewall is switched on by default when XP SP is installed. The older ICF application, on the other hand, required users to manually set the service to start. The new Security Center also makes Windows Firewall easy for the average non-technical person to understand and use.


Windows Firewall provides one way network protection only. It blocks incoming traffic as configured, but it will not block any outgoing traffic. This behavior is by design, as Microsoft and various security experts recommend controlling outgoing traffic through a separate network device such as the broadband router. On the other hand, alternative software firewall products on the market today usually support traffic blocking in either direction. Modern trojans and spyware applications can easily disable these outbound firewall traffic blocks, however. Overall, the lack of outbound traffic blocking in Windows Firewall detracts very little from its power.


The design of Windows Firewall has also been criticized in another respect. Some feel that it is too easy for Windows Firewall to be switched off by malicious applications and users. It appears more likely, however, that Windows Firewall is no more or less secure in this respect than any other popular software firewall for Windows. The introduction of XP requires makers of other commercial firewall software for Windows to ensure their applications are compatible with Windows Firewall.

Users of ZoneAlarm and other commercial firewalls will upgrade their software to new versions that are built to coexist with Windows. Running Windows Firewall together with another company's firewall on the same computer could cause networking problems. Bottom line Windows Firewall for Windows XP is a significant step forward in improving the security of Windows computers. With, home computer users will get a significant additional level of network security support without needing to fuss with detailed technical configurations. Those who already run thirdparty firewall software should consult the vendor's Web site to ensure they have the needed related updates.

Proxy servers

Proxy servers work at the Application layer, layer of the OSI model. They aren't as popular as ordinary firewalls that work at lower layers and support application-independent filtering. Proxy servers are also more difficult to install and maintain than firewalls, as proxy functionality for each application protocol like HTTP, SMTP, or SOCKS must be configured individually. However, a properly configured proxy server improves network security and performance. Proxies have capability that ordinary firewalls simply cannot provide.

Some network administrators deploy both firewalls and proxy servers to work in tandem. To do this, they install both firewall and proxy server software on a server gateway. Because they function at the OSI Application layer, the filtering capability of proxy servers is relatively intelligent compared to that of ordinary routers. For example, proxy Web servers can check the URL of outgoing requests for Web pages by inspecting HTTP GET and POST messages. Using this feature, network administrators can bar access to illegal domains but allow access to other sites. Ordinary firewalls, in contrast, cannot see Web domain names inside those messages. Likewise for incoming data traffic, ordinary routers can filter by port number or network address, but proxy servers can also filter based on application content inside the messages.

Various software products for connection sharing on small home networks have appeared in recent years. In medium and largesized networks, however, actual proxy servers offer a more scalable and cost-effective alternative for shared Internet access. Rather than give each client computer a direct Internet connection, all internal connections can be funneled through one or more proxies that in turn connect to the outside.

The caching of Web pages by proxy servers can improve a network's "quality of service" in three ways. First, caching may conserve bandwidth on the network, increasing scalability. Next, caching can improve response time experienced by clients. With an HTTP proxy cache, for example, Web pages can load more quickly into the browser. Finally, proxy server caches increase availability. Web pages or other files in the cache remain accessible even if the original source or an intermediate network link goes offline.

Packet framing

A packet consists of two kinds of data control information and user data also known as payload. The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example: source and destination addresses, error detection codes like checksums, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in packet headers and trailers, with user data in between.

Different communications protocols use different conventions for distinguishing between the elements and for formatting the data. In Binary Synchronous Transmission, the packet is formatted in bit bytes, and special characters are used to delimit the different elements. Other protocols, like Ethernet, establish the start of the header and data elements by their location relative to the start of the packet. Some protocols format the information at a bit level instead of a byte level.

A good analogy is to consider a packet to be like a letter: the header is like the envelope, and the data area is whatever the person puts inside the envelope. A difference, however, is that some networks can break a larger packet into smaller packets when necessarynote that these smaller data elements are still formatted as packets.A network design can achieve two major results by using packets: error detection and multiple host addressing.It is more efficient and reliable to calculate a checksum or cyclic redundancy check over the contents of a packet than to check errors using character-by-character parity bit checking.The packet trailer often contains error checking data to detect errors that occur during transmission.
Modern networks usually connect three or more host computers together; in such cases the packet header generally contains addressing information so that the packet is received by the correct host computer. In complex networks constructed of multiple routing and switching nodes, like the ARPANETand the modern Internet, a series of packets sent from one host computer to another may follow different routes to reach the same destination. This technology is called packet switching.
In general, the term packet applies to any message formatted as a packet, while the term datagram is generally reserved for packets of an "unreliable" service. A reliable service is one that notifies the user if delivery fails, while an "unreliable" one does not notify the user if delivery fails. For example, IP provides an unreliable service. Together, TCP and IP provide a reliable service, whereas UDP and IP provide an unreliable one. All these protocols use packets, but UDP packets are generally called datagrams. When the ARPANET pioneered packet switching, it provided a reliable packet delivery procedure to its connected hosts via its. A host computer simply arranged the data in the correct packet format, inserted the address of the destination host computer, and sent the message across the interface to its connected IMP. Once the message was delivered to the destination host, an acknowledgement was delivered to the sending host. If the network could not deliver the message, it would send an error message back to the sending host.

Internetworking

involves connecting two or more distinct computer networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork often shortened to internet. Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer the 'network' layer of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork.

In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them,Intranet, Extranet, Internet. Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.
An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities ., a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

The Internet is a specific internetwork. It consists of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network ARPANET developed by DARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web WWW. The 'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing systemIP Addresses administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol BGP, forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. involves connecting two or more distinct computer networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork often shortened to internet. Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer the 'network' layer of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork.

In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them,Intranet, Extranet, Internet. Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.
An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities ., a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

The Internet is a specific internetwork. It consists of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network ARPANET developed by DARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web WWW. The 'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing systemIP Addresses administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol BGP, forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.

Types of networks

A local area network LAN is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITUTG.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines.

For example, a library may have a wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local devices., printers and servers and to connect to the internet. On a wired LAN, PCs in the library are typically connected by category cable, running the IEEE protocol through a system of interconnected devices and eventually connect to the Internet. The cables to the servers are typically on Cat e enhanced cable, which will support IEEE at Gbit. A wireless LAN may exist using a different IEEE protocol, or possibly. n. The staff computers bright green in the figure can get to the color printer, checkout records, and the academic network and the Internet. All user computers can get to the Internet and the card catalog. Each workgroup can get to its local printer. Note that the printers are not accessible from outside their workgroup.


Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resourcesAll interconnected devices must understand the network layer layer because they are handling multiple subnets the different colors. Those inside the library, which have only Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access routers.

The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs wide area networks, include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other .LAN technologies operate at speeds up to. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of, and possibly Gbits.Main article: Campus area network.

A campus area network CAN is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks LANs within a limited geographical area. It can be considered one form of a metropolitan area network, specific to an academic setting.In the case of a university campus-based campus area network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including; academic departments, the university library and student residence halls. A campus area network is larger than a local area network but smaller than a wide area network WAN in some cases.
The main aim of a campus area network is to facilitate students accessing internet and university resources. This is a network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a specific and contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, office building, or a military base. A CAN may be considered a type of MAN metropolitan area network, but is generally limited to a smaller area than a typical MAN. This term is most often used to discuss the implementation of networks for a contiguous area. This should not be confused with a Controller Area Network. A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs perhaps one per room, and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCPIP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

Networking

The following list presents categories used for classifying networks.Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as Optical fiber,Ethernet,Wireless LAN, HomePNA, Power line communication or G.hn.Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Frequently deployed devices include hubs, switches, bridges andor routers.Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium.

ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines to create a highspeed up to Gigabits local area network.Networks are often classified as Local Area Network LAN, Wide Area Network WAN, Metropolitan Area Network MAN Personal Area Network PAN, Virtual Private Network VPN,Campus Area Network CAN, Storage Area Network SAN, etc. depending on their scale, scope and purpose.

Usage, trust levels and access rights often differ between these types of network - for example, LANs tend to be designed for internal use by an organization's internal systems and employees in individual physical locations such as a building, while WANs may connect physically separate parts of an organization to each other and may include connections to third parties.Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist among the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Clientserver and Peertopeer workgrouparchitecture.Main article: Network topology.


Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, starbus network, tree or hierarchical topology network. Network topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network.
Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a bus topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct; the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout. Networks may be classified based on the method of data used to convey the data, these include digital and analog networks

computer graphics

Raster graphic sprites left and mask devicecomputer graphics are the computer-based generation of digital imagesmostly from two dmensional models, such as geometric models, text, and digital images, and by techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves.computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional printing and drawing technologies, such as typography, cartography, technical drawing, advertising, etc.


In those applications, the twodimensional image is not just a representation of a realworld object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; twodimensional models are therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than computer graphics, whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography.Pixel art is a form of digital art, created through the use of raster graphics software, where images are edited on the pixel level. Graphics in most old or relatively limited computerand video games, graphing calculator games, and many mobile phone games are mostly pixel art.



Example showing effect of vector graphics versus raster graphics.Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics, which is the representation of images as an array of pixels, as it is typically used for the representation of photographic images. There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools.

computer graphics in contrast to computer graphics are graphics that use a threedimensional representation of geometric data that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering images. Such images may be for later display or for real time viewing.Despite these differences, computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms as computer vector graphics in the wire frame model and computer raster graphics in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between and is occasionally blurred applications may use techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily may use rendering techniques.

Computer hardware device

HDDs record data by magnetizing ferromagnetic material directionally, to represent either a or a binary digit. They read the data back by detecting the magnetization of the material. A typical HDD design consists of a spindle which holds one or more flat circular disks called platters, onto which the data are recorded. The platters are made from a non manetic material, usually aluminum alloy or glass, and are coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Older disks used iron oxides the gnetic material, but current disks use a cobalt ased alloy.



A cross section of the magnetic surface in action. In this case the binary data is encoded using frequency modulation.The platters are spun at very high speeds. Information is written to a platter as it rotates past devices called read and write heads that operate very close tens of nanometers in new drives over the magnetic surface. The read and write head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material immediately under it. There is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the spindle, mounted on a common arm. An actuator arm or access arm moves the heads on an arc roughly radially across the platters as they spin, allowing each head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins. The arm is moved using a voice coil actuator or in some older designs a stepper motor.

The magnetic recording media are CoCrPt based magnetic thin films of about in thickness. The thin films are normally deposit on glass ceramic metal substrate and covered by thin carbon layer for protection. The Co based alloy thin films are polycrystalline and the size of grains has an order . Because the sizes of each grain are tiny, they are typical single domain magnets. The media are magnetically hard coercivity is about . so that a stable remnant magnetization can be achieved. The grain boundaries turn out to be very important. The reason is that, the grains are very small and close to each other, so the coupling between each grains are very strong. When one grain is magnetized, the adjacent grains tend to be aligned parallel to it or demagnetized. Then both the stability of the data and signal to noise ratio will be sabotaged. A clear grain boundary can weaken the coupling of the grains and subsequently increase the signal-to-noise ratio. During writing process, ideally one grain can store one bit .

However, current technology can not reach that far yet. In practice, a group of grains about are magnetized as one bit. So, in order to increase the data density, smaller grains are required. From microstructure point of view, longitudinal and perpendicular recording are the same. Also, similar Co based thin films are used in both longitudinal and perpendicular recording. However, the fabrication processes are different to gain different crystal structure and magnetic properties. In longitudinal recording, the single domain grains have uniaxial anisotropy with easy axes lying in the film plane. The consequence of this arrangement is that adjacent magnets repel each other. Therefore the magnetostatic energy is so large that it is difficult to increase areal density. Perpendicular recording media, on the other hand, has the easy axis of the grains oriented perpendicular to the disk plane. Adjacent magnets attract to each other and magnetostatic energy are much lower. So, much higher areal density can be achieved in perpendicular recording. Another unique feature in perpendicular recording is that a soft magnetic underlayer are incorporated into the recording disk.This underlayer is used to conduct writing magnetic flux so that the writing is more efficient. This will be discussed in writing process. Therefore, a higher anisotropy medium film, such as and rare arth magnets, can be used.

Jupiter

Jupiter probably has a core of rocky material amounting to something like Earth masses. Above the core lies the main bulk of the planet in the form of liquid metallic hydrogen. This exotic form of the most common of elements is possible only at pressures exceeding million bars, as is the case in the interior of Jupiter and Saturn. Liquid metallic hydrogen consists of ionized protons and electrons like the interior of the Sun but at a far lower temperature. At the temperature and pressure of Jupiter's interior hydrogen is a liquid, not a gas. It is an electrical conductor and the source of Jupiter's magnetic field. This layer probably also contains some helium and traces of various ices.

The outermost layer is composed primarily of ordinary molecular hydrogen and helium which is liquid in the interior and gaseous further out. The atmosphere we see is just the very top of this deep layer. Water, carbon dioxide, methane and other simple molecules are also present in tiny amounts. Recent experiments have shown that hydrogen does not change phase suddenly. Therefore the interiors of the jovian planets probably have indistinct boundaries between their various interior layers.

Three distinct layers of clouds are believed to exist consisting of ammonia ice, ammonium hydrosulfide and a mixture of ice and water. However, the preliminary results from the Galileo probe show only faint indications of clouds one instrument seems to have detected the topmost layer while another may have seen the second. But the probe's entry point left was unusual Earth based telescopic observations and more recent observations by the Galileo orbiter suggest that the probe entry site may well have been one of the warmest and least cloudy areas on Jupiter at that time.

Data from the Galileo atmospheric probe also indicate that there is much less water than expected. The expectation was that Jupiter's atmosphere would contain about twice the amount of oxygen combined with the abundant hydrogen to make water as the Sun. But it now appears that the actual concentration much less than the Sun's. Also surprising was the high temperature and density of the uppermost parts of the atmosphere.

Earth

The Earth is the densest major body in the solar system. The other terrestrial planets probably have similar structures and compositions with some differences the Moon has at most a small core Mercury has an extra large core relative to its diameter the mantles of Mars and the Moon are much thicker; the Moon and Mercury may not have chemically distinct crusts; Earth may be the only one with distinct inner and outer cores. Note, however, that our knowledge of planetary interiors is mostly theoretical even for the Earth.
Unlike the other terrestrial planets, Earth's crust is divided into several separate solid plates which float around independently on top of the hot mantle below. The theory that describes this is known as plate tectonics. It is characterized by two major processes: spreading and subduction. Spreading occurs when two plates move away from each other and new crust is created by upwelling magma from below. Subduction occurs when two plates collide and the edge of one dives beneath the other and ends up being destroyed in the mantle.

There is also transverse motion at some plate boundaries . the San Andreas Fault in California and collisions between continental plates . India Eurasia. There are at present eight major plates: There are also twenty or more small plates such as the Arabian, Cocos, and Philippine Plates. Earthquakes are much more common at the plate boundaries. Plotting their locations makes it easy to see the plate boundaries.


The Earth's surface is very young. In the relatively short by astronomical standards period of years or so erosion and tectonic processes destroy and recreate most of the Earth's surface and thereby eliminate almost all traces of earlier geologic surface history such as impact craters. Thus the very early history of the Earth has mostly been erased. The Earth is billion years old, but the oldest known rocks are about 4 billion years old and rocks older than billion years are rare. The oldest fossils of living organisms are less than billion years old. There is no record of the critical period when life was first getting started.

Uranus

The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of hydrogen, helium, methane and small amounts of acetylene and other hydrocarbons. Methane in the upper atmosphere absorbs red light, giving Uranus its blue-green color. The atmosphere is arranged into clouds running at constant latitudes, similar to the orientation of the more vivid latitudinal bands seen on Jupiter and Saturn. Winds at mid latitudes on Uranus blow in the direction of the planet's rotation. These winds blow at velocities of meters per second miles per hour. Radio science experiments found winds of about meters per second blowing in the opposite direction at the equator.
Uranus is distinguished by the fact that it is tipped on its side. Its unusual position is thought to be the result of a collision with a planet sized body early in the solar system's history. Voyager found that one of the most striking influences of this sideways position is its effect on the tail of the magnetic field, which is itself tilted degrees from the planet's axis of rotation. The magnetotail was shown to be twisted by the planet's rotation into a long corkscrew shape behind the planet.

The magnetic field source is unknown; the electrically conductive, super pressurized ocean of water and ammonia once thought to lie between the core and the atmosphere now appears to be nonexistent. The magnetic fields of Earth and other planets are believed to arise from electrical currents produced in their molten cores. There may be a large number of narrow rings, or possibly incomplete rings or ring arcs, as small as in width.

The individual ring particles were found to be of low reflectivity. At least one ring, the epsilon, was found to be gray in color. The moons Cordelia and Ophelia act as shepherd satellites for the epsilon ring. The greenish color of it atmosphere is due to methane and This view of Uranus was acquired by Voyager on January. The blue-green appearance of its atmosphere results from methane and high altitude photochemical smog. This gas absorbs red wavelengths from the incoming sunlight, leaving the predominant bluish color seen here.

Pluto

Pluto is usually farther from the Sun than any of the eight planets; however, due to the eccentricity of its orbit, it is closer than Neptune for out of its orbit. Pluto crossed Neptune's orbit , made its closest approach September and remained within the orbit of Neptune until. This will not occur again until September . As Pluto approaches perihelion it reaches its maximum distance from the ecliptic due to its degree inclination.

Thus, it is far above or below the plane of Neptune's orbit. Under these conditions, Pluto and Neptune will not collide and do not approach closer than to one another. Pluto's rotation period is days, the same as its satellite Charon. Although it is common for a satellite to travel in a synchronous orbit with its planet, Pluto rotates synchronously with the orbit of its satellite. Thus being tidally locked, Pluto and Charon continuously face each other as they travel through space.

Unlike most planets, but similar to Uranus, Pluto rotates with its poles almost in its orbital plane. Pluto's rotational axis is tipped degrees. When Pluto was first discovered, its relatively bright south polar region was the view seen from the Earth. Pluto appeared to grow dim as our viewpoint gradually shifted from nearly pole on in to nearly equator on in. Pluto's equator is now the view seen from Earth.

During the period from through , Earth was aligned with the orbit of Charon around Pluto such that an eclipse could be observed every Pluto day. This provided opportunity to collect significant data which led to albedo maps defining surface reflectivity, and to the first accurate determination of the sizes of Pluto and Charon, including all the numbers that could be calculated therefrom.

Neptune

The first two thirds of Neptune is composed of a mixture of molten rock, water, liquid ammonia and methane. The outer third is a mixture of heated gases comprised of hydrogen, helium, water and methane. Methane gives Neptune its blue cloud color.

Neptune is a dynamic planet with several large, dark spots reminiscent of Jupiter's hurricane like storms. The largest spot, known as the Great Dark Spot, is about the size of the earth and is similar to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. Voyager revealed a small, irregularly shaped, eastward-moving cloud scooting around Neptune every hours or so. This scooter as it has been dubbed could be a plume rising above a deeper cloud deck.
Long bright clouds, similar to cirrus clouds on Earth, were seen high in Neptune's atmosphere. At low northern latitudes, Voyager captured images of cloud streaks casting their shadows on cloud decks below.

The strongest winds on any planet were measured on Neptune. Most of the winds there blow westward, opposite to the rotation of the planet. Near the Great Dark Spot, winds blow up to kilometers hour.
Neptune has a set of four rings which are narrow and very faint. The rings are made up of dust particles thought to have been made by tiny meteorites smashing into Neptune's moons. From ground based telescopes the rings appear to be arcs but from Voyager the arcs turned out to be bright spots or clumps in the ring system. The exact cause of the bright clumps is unknown.

The magnetic field of Neptune, like that of Uranus, is highly tilted at from the rotation axis and offset at least from the physical center. Comparing the magnetic fields of the two planets, scientists think the extreme orientation may be characteristic of flows in the interior of the planet and not the result of that planet's sideways orientation or of any possible field reversals at either planet.

Venus

Venus has been known since prehistoric times. It is the brightest object in the sky except for the Sun and the Moon. Like Mercury, it was popularly thought to be two separate bodies: Eosphorus as the morning star and Hesperus as the evening star, but the Greek astronomers knew better. Venus's apparition as the morning star is also sometimes called Lucifer. Since Venus is an inferior planet, it shows phases when viewed with a telescope from the perspective of Earth.

Galileo's observation of this phenomenon was important evidence in favor of Copernicus's heliocentric theory of the solar system. The first spacecraft to visit Venus was Mariner It was subsequently visited by many others more than in all so far, including Pioneer Venus and the Soviet Venera the first spacecraft to land on another planet, and Venera which returned the first photographs of the surface. The first orbiter, the US spacecraft Magellan.

produced detailed maps of Venus surface using radar. ESA's Venus Express is now in orbit with a large variety of instruments. Venus rotation is somewhat unusual in that it is both very slow Earth days per Venus day, slightly longer than Venus' year and retrograde. In addition, the periods of Venus rotation and of its orbit are synchronized. such that it always presents the same face toward Earth when the two planets are at their closest approach.

Whether this is a resonance effect or merely a coincidence is not known. Venus is sometimes regarded as Earth's sister planet. In some ways they are very similar: Both have few craters indicating relatively young surfaces. Their densities and chemical compositions are similar. Because of these similarities, it was thought that below its dense clouds Venus might be very Earthlike and might even have life. But, unfortunately, more detailed study of Venus reveals that in many important ways it is radically different from Earth. It may be the least hospitable place for life in the solar system.

Mercury

Mercury has a very elliptical oval shaped orbit. At perihelion at its closest point it is about million from the Sun, but at aphelion at its farthest point it is . Mercury is about million from Earth at its closest approach. Mercury is not easily seen from Earth due to its small angular separation from the Sun. Mercury moves around the sun faster than any other planet. Mercury travels about miles per second and it takes Earth days to orbit the sun. The Earth goes around the sun once every.

The planet rotates once about every Earth days, a rotation slower than that of any other planet except Venus. As a result of the planet's slow rotation on its axis and rapid movement around the sun, a day on Mercury lasts Earth days interval between one sunrise and the next. Mercury is the second densest major body in the solar system after Planet Earth and its density is slightly less than the Earths. Mercury's smaller mass makes its force of gravity only about a third as strong as that of the Earth. An object that weighs pounds on the Earth would weigh only about pounds on Mercury.

Mercury has a large iron core which is most likely at least partially molten and generates a magnetic field about as strong as that of Earth's. Mercury's interior appears to resemble that of the Earth. Both planets have a rocky layer called a mantle beneath their crust and both planets have an iron core.The surface of Mercury consists of cratered terrain and smooth plains and many deep craters similar to those on the moon. The craters formed when meteors or small comets crashed into the planet. The largest known crater is Caloris Basin, with a diameter.

Like the other terrestrial planets Venus, Earth and Mars Mercury is made mostly of rock and metal. Mercury's surface appears to be much like that of the moon. It reflects approximately percent of the sunlight it receives, about the same as the moon's surface reflects. Like the moon, Mercury is covered by a thin layer of minerals called silicates in the form of tiny particles. Scans of Mercury made by Earth-based radar indicate that craters at Mercury's poles contain water ice. The floors of the craters are permanently shielded from sunlight, so the temperature never gets high enough to melt the ice.

Saturn

Saturn's interior is similar to Jupiter's consisting of a rocky core, a liquid metallic hydrogen layer and a molecular hydrogen layer. Traces of various ices are also present. Saturn's interior is hot K at the core and Saturn radiates more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Most of the extra energy is generated by the Kelvin Helmholtz mechanism as in Jupiter.

But this may not be sufficient to explain Saturn's luminosity; some additional mechanism may be at work, perhaps the "raining out" of helium deep in Saturn's interior. The bands so prominent on Jupiter are much fainter on Saturn. They are also much wider near the equator. Details in the cloud tops are invisible from Earth so it was not until the Voyager encounters that any detail of Saturn's atmospheric circulation could be studied.

Saturn also exhibits long lived ovals red spot at center of image at right and other features common on Jupiter. In , HST observed an enormous white cloud near Saturn's equator which was not present during the Voyager encounters; in another, smaller storm was observed left.Two prominent rings A and B and one faint ring C can be seen from the Earth. The gap between the A and B rings is known as the Cassini division.

The much fainter gap in the outer part of the A ring is known as the Encke Division but this is somewhat of a misnomer since it was very likely never seen by Encke. The Voyager pictures show four additional faint rings. Saturn's rings, unlike the rings of the other planets, are very bright albedo. Though they look continuous from the Earth, the rings are actually composed of innumerable small particles each in an independent orbit. They range in size from a centimeter or so to several meters. A few kilometer-sized objects are also likely.

Saturn's rings are extraordinarily thin: though they're km or more in diameter they're less than one kilometer thick. Despite their impressive appearance, there's really very little material in the rings if the rings were compressed into a single body it would be no more than km across.

Mars

Mars continues its evening climb in the eastern sky and is growing in brightness and apparent diameter daily. It is now pretty close to its biggest and brightest of the season at and mag . The actual peak will occur at the end of the month when Mars reaches just over and a blazing mag . In the meantime, just kick back and enjoy the views. Incredible details on the red planet are visible to almost any decent telescope at this point. on virtually any clear evening. Those of you with high quality optics will be amazed at the views you get. especially on nights of good seeing.

We recently had the privilege of viewing Mars through the Clark Refractor down at the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. To say that the views were sweet through this magnificent instrument would be an understatement. These were without a doubt the finest views of Mars that I've ever seen. Mars will only improve over the remainder of the month. and will remain quite spectacular well into the fall. Be sure to look for the red planet each clear night we get throughout the fall.

The planet Mars was in the news often in due to its close orbital pass. Expect to hear about Mars often in as well due to a host of Missions to the red planet. The first mission to arrive is the Mars Express. On Dec. , it released the Beagle lander which is expected to land on the Martian surface on Christmas day. This is the same day that the Mars Express spacecraft is scheduled for orbit insertion. Visit the Mars Express Website for the latest information.

For the latest information on Mars, checkout The Weekly Utah Skies Report Or. Subscribe and have it sent to your inbox. Mars is currently rising in the southeast about. By about or so, it should be at its highest due south. and should be sinking in the southwest around midnight. Mars is still bright enough that you just can't miss it. It sounds like the plot of a sci fi movie rogue black holes roaming our galaxy, threatening to swallow anything that gets too close.

Savana grass land

It is characterized by a grassy ground layer and a distinct upper layer of woody plants. Where this upper layer is near the ground the vegetation may be referred to as Shrubveld, where it is dense as Woodland, and the intermediate stages are locally known as Bushveld. The environmental factors delimiting the biome are complex: altitude ranges from sea level to rainfall varies from per year; frost may occur from days per year; and almost every major geological and soil type occurs within the biome.
A major factor delimiting the biome is the lack of sufficient rainfall which prevents the upper layer from dominating, coupled with fires and grazing, which keep the grass layer dominant. Summer rainfall is essential for the grass dominance, which, with its fine material, fuels near annual fires. In fact, almost all species are adapted to survive fires, usually with less than of plants, both in the grass and tree layer, killed by fire. Even with severe burning, most species can resprout from the stem bases.

The grass layer is dominated by type grasses, which are at an advantage where the growing season is hot, but where rainfall has a stronger winter component, type grasses dominate. The shrub tree layer may vary from in height, but in Bushveld typically varies from. The shrub tree element may come to dominate the vegetation in areas which are being overgrazed.

Most of the savanna vegetation types are used for grazing, mainly by cattle or game. In the southernmost savanna types, goats are the major stock. In some types crops and subtropical fruit are cultivated. These mainly include the Clay Thorn Bushveld , parts of Mixed Bushveld , and Sweet Lowveld Bushveld. Urbanization is not a problem, perhaps because the hot, moist climate and diseases sleeping sickness, malaria hindered urban development.

Conservation of savanna is good in principle, mainly due to the presence of the Kruger and Kalahari Gemsbok National Parks within the biome. Similarly, in neighbouring countries, large reserves occur, such as Etosha, Gemsbok, Chobe and Hwange National Parks and the Central Kalahari Game Reserve.

Grass land

The Grassland Biome is found chiefly on the high central plateau of South Africa, and the inland areas of KwaZuluNatal and the Eastern Cape. The topography is mainly flat and rolling, but includes the escarpment itself. Altitude varies from near sea level to above sea level. Grasslands also known locally as Grassveld are dominated by a single layer of grasses. The amount of cover depends on rainfall and the degree of grazing.

Trees are absent, except in a few localized habitats. Geophytes bulbs are often abundant. Frosts, fire and grazing maintain the grass dominance and prevent the establishment of trees. There are two categories of grass plants: sweet grasses have a lower fibre content, maintain their nutrients in the leaves in winter and are therefore palatable to stock. Sour grasses have a higher fibre content and tend to withdraw their nutrients from the leaves during winter so that they are unpalatable to stock.

At higher rainfall and on more acidic soils, sour grasses prevail, with per year taken as the level at which unpalatable grasses predominate. grasses dominate throughout the biome, except at the highest altitudes where grasses become prominent. Grass plants tolerate grazing, fire, and even mowing, well most produce new stems readily, using a wide variety of strategies. Overgrazing tends to increase the proportion of pioneer, creeping and annual grasses, and it is in the transition zones between sweet and sour grass dominance that careful management is required to maintain the abundance of sweet grasses.


The Grassland Biome is the mainstay of dairy, beef and wool production in South Africa. Pastures may be augmented in wetter areas by the addition of legumes and sweet grasses. The Grassland Biome is the cornerstone of the maize crop, and many grassland types have been converted to this crop. Sorghum, wheat and sunflowers are also farmed on a smaller scale.

Indian forest service

India is one of the First countries in the world to have stated scientific management of its forests. During the year the then British India Government started the Imperial Forest Department and appointed Dr. Dietrich Brandis, a German Forest officer Inspector General of Forests in . Having recognized the need to have a premier forest service to mange the varied natural resources of the vast country and to organize the affairs of the Imperial Forest Department, Imperial Forest Service was constituted in .

Having realized the importance of a multi tier forest Administration in the federal and provincial Governments for effective management of forest resources the British India Government also constituted Provincial Forest Service and Executive Subordinate Services, which were quite similar to the present day forest administrative hierarchy. The officers appointed to the Imperial Forest Service from were trained in France and Germany. Thereafter, until they were trained at Cooper's Hill, London, which had been one of the prestigious professional colleges of Forestry at that time.

From the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh had undertaken the task of training the officers of the Imperial Forest Service. The Imperial Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, presently & popularly known all over the world as FRI was established at Dehra Dun in the year . The baton to train the IFS officers was passed on to Forest Research Institute, which it did successfully from . Subsequently the Indian Forest College IFC was established in the year at Dehra Dun and the officers recruited to the Superior Forest Service by the provinces states were trained there. The subject of Forestry which was managed by the Federal Government until then, was transferred to the Provincial List by the Government of India Act, and subsequently recruitment to the Imperial Forest Service was discontinued.

The Indian Forest Service, one of the three All India Services, was constituted in the year under the All India Services Act, by the Government of India. The main mandate of the service is the implementation of the National Forest Policy which envisages scientific management of forests and to exploit them on a sustained basis for primary timber products, among other things. Since the management of the forests remained in the hands of the Provincial Governments and even today the Forest Departments are managing the forests of the country under the respective State governments.

Ocean

It may seem strange, but many of the words we use every day come from maritime cultures. After all, until very recently in our country's and the world's history, most long distance travel took place across the seas. Many of our ancestors came to the United States on ships, and most of the first settlements they founded were ports. They depended on the ocean for food, trade, and news from their home countries.

In fact, it is hard to find a city or large community in the United States that is not close to a major body of water. So, it makes sense that many words in our language reflect our ocean culture, both past and present. The ties between modern language and the sea are strong, and the origins of many words and expressions are often clear.

For example, the meaning of phrases such as Don't give up the ship, Like a fish out of water, and Take the wind out of his sails seem almost obvious. Even the name of our country comes from an ocean map maker Amerigo Vespucci, and our nation's capital, the District of Columbia, is named after the famous explorer Christopher Columbus. However, the origins of many words and phrases are not as obvious and require some understanding of life at, and close to, the sea At the helm, Batten down the hatches, Blow over, Down the hatch, Learn the ropes, Flotsam and jetsam, Full speed ahead, Get underway, Get the drift, Keel over, Make headway, On deck, Out of Commission, and Go off the deep end.

The oceans connect many lands and languages, carrying words from different cultures into our own language. For example, the term First rate came from a system that was used in Britain from Elizabethan times through the nineteenth century to evaluate warships. No matter how high a ship's rating, if it sailed too close to the shore it risked running aground on a strand, or beach, and so becoming stranded. However, if the crew were Gung ho, they could call upon their enthusiasm to get them out of a tough situation. This Chinese expression meaning work together was first adopted as a motto by Marine Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson during World War II for his division.

Mount everst

The photograph of Tenzing Norgay taken by Edmund Hillary on Everest's summit on has become an iconic image, exemplifying ideas of success and achievement. Although Everest was photographed from the Indian borders during the century, it was not until that the first expedition to the mountain took place. Its members, including George Mallory , extensively photographed the mountain, its surroundings, and the local Tibetan people, and General Wheeler's accompanying photographic survey party photographed and mapped the Everest region.
The British monopolized access to the mountain until , and images taken by members of various expeditions, including A. F. R. Wollaston , Eric Shipton , and Alfred Gregory , are held at the Royal Geographical Society.On may a team led by Colonel L. V. S. Blacker , in two Westland biplanes, took black and white and infrared photographs, and cine-film, during the first flight over Everest. Two special Williamson Eagle cameras were used, protected by electrically heated jackets. Later RAF pictures of the mountain's flanks, made in the ,

Provided vital clues to how it could be climbed from the south side, and were used by John Hunt's team in its successful ascent in .Contemporary photographers like David Breashears and climbers such as Doug Scott and Reinhold Messner have continued to record their experiences of Everest with the camera. Today, digital images are taken and downloaded immediately to websites to acquaint interested parties, especially sponsors, with an expedition's every move.

Peak, on the border of Tibet and Nepal, in the central Himalayas. It is the highest elevation in the world. Called Chomolungma or Qomolangma Mother Goddess of the Land by Tibetans and Sagarmatha head of the sea by Nepalis, it is named in English for the surveyor Sir George Everest. It was first climbed on May , when Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay of Nepal reached the summit. The body of George H. L. Mallory, who died in an earlier attempt , was found on the mountain in .

Munors mountain

Before the publication of Munro's Tables there was considerable uncertainty about the number of peaks in Scotland, with estimates ranging from . Sir Hugh Munro's original list, published in the Scottish Mountaineering Club Journal in September, listed summits over feet, of which were regarded as separate mountains the term Munro applies to the latter, while the lesser summits are known as tops.
Munro did not set any measure of topographic prominence by which a peak qualified as a separate mountain, and much debate has since taken place over how distinct two hills must be if they are to be considered as two separate Munros.The Scottish Mountaineering Club SMC have carried out a number of revisions of the tables, both in response to new height data on Ordnance Survey maps and to address the perceived inconsistency as to which peaks qualify for Munro status. As of , all peaks with a prominence o or more have been given Munro status.


This has resulted in the subsidiary summits of several well known mountains, such as Beinn Alligin, Beinn Eighe and Buachaille Etive Mòr, gaining Munro status. This is in line with other classification schemes in Scotland, such as the Corbetts and Grahams, which require a peak to have a prominence of feet for inclusion; however, the Munros still lack a rigid set of criteria for inclusion, with many summits of lesser prominence listed.


The current revision, published in , lists Munros and further subsidiary tops. They are all in the Scottish Highlands, north of the Highland Boundary Fault.Despite their relatively modest height compared with some continental ranges, walking and climbing in the Scottish mountains may be made treacherous by their latitude and exposure to Atlantic weather systems.

Mountains of north america

This article comprises three sortable tables of major mountain peaks of Greater North America.This article defines Greater North America as the northern portion of the continental landmass of the Americas extending from the Panama to Alaska plus the islands surrounding North America. This article defines the Islands of North America to include the coastal islands of North America, the islands of the Caribbean Sea.

The Bahamas, the Bermuda Islands Greenland and its surrounding islands, the islands of Northern Canada, the islands of Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, and the islands of the northeastern Pacific Ocean.Topographic elevation is the vertical distance above the reference geoid, a precise mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface. Topographic prominence is the elevation difference between the summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit.

Topographic isolation is the minimum great circle distance to a point of higher elevation.This article defines a major mountain peak as a summit with at least meters of topographic prominence. An ultra prominent peak is a summit with at least meters of topographic prominence. The following sortable table lists the highest mountain peaks of Greater North America with at least meters of topographic prominence.


Of these highest major summits, are located in the United States, in Canada, and in México. Four of these peaks lie on the international border between Canad and the United States.See the Highest mountain peaks of North America for a table of all summits with at least meters of topographic elevation and at least meters of topographic prominence.

Green land ice cape

The Greenland Ice Sheet is also sometimes referred to under the term inland ice, or its Danish equivalent, indlandsis. It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap. Ice sheet, however, is considered the more correct term as ice cap generally refers to less extensive ice masses.The ice in the current ice sheet is as old as years. However, it is generally thought that the Greenland Ice Sheet formed in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene by coalescence of ice caps and glaciers. It did not develop at all until the late Pliocene, but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation.

The massive weight of the ice has depressed the central area of Greenland; the bedrock surface is near sea level over most of the interior of Greenland, but mountains occur around the periphery, confining the sheet along its margins. If the ice were to disappear, Greenland would most probably appear as an archipelago, at least until isostasy would lift the land surface above sea level once again. The ice surface reaches its greatest altitude on two north south elongated domes, or ridges. The southern dome reaches almost metres at latitudes the northern dome reaches about metres at about latitude .

The crests of both domes are displaced east of the centre line of Greenland. The unconfined ice sheet does not reach the sea along a broad front anywhere in Greenland, so that no large ice shelves occur. The ice margin just reaches the sea, however, in a region of irregular topography in the area of Melville Bay southeast of Thule. Large outlet glaciers, which are restricted tongues of the ice sheet, move through bordering valleys around the periphery of Greenland to calve off into the ocean, producing the numerous icebergs that sometimes occur in North Atlantic shipping lanes.

The best known of these outlet glaciers is Jakobshavn Isbræ Kalaallisut Sermeq Kujalleq, which, at its terminus, flows at speeds of metres per day.On the ice sheet, temperatures are generally substantially lower than elsewhere in Greenland. The lowest mean annual temperatures, about occur on the north central part of the north dome, and temperatures at the crest of the south dome are about .During winter, the ice sheet takes on a strikingly clear blue green color. During summer, the top layer of ice melts leaving pockets of air in the ice that makes it look white.

Mountains peak of Mexico

This article comprises three sortable tables of major mountain peaks of Mexico.Topographic elevation is the vertical distance above the reference geoid a precise mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface. Topographic prominence is the elevation difference between the summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit. Topographic isolation is the minimum great circle distance to a point of higher elevation.

This article defines a major mountain peak as a summit with at least meters topographic prominence. An ultra prominent peak is a summit with at least, topographic prominence.The following sortable table lists the most topographically prominent mountain peaks of Mexico.Four of these most prominent summits are located in Oaxaca, three in Puebla, three in Coahuila, three in Nuevo León, two in Veracruz, two in Mexico State, two in Jalisco, two in Michoacán, two in Baja California Sur, and one each in Morelos, Chiapas Guerrero, Baja California Tlaxcala, and Querétaro. Volcán Tacaná lies on the international border between Mexico and Guatemala.


See the Most prominent mountain peaks of Mexico for a table of all summits with at least meters of topographic prominence.is the vertical distance above the reference geoid, a precise mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface. Topographic prominence is the elevation difference between the summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit. Topographic isolation is the minimum great circle distance to a point of higher elevation.

This article defines a major mountain peak as a summit with at least of topographic prominence. An ultra prominent peak is a summit with at least topographic prominence.Four of these most isolated summits are located in Coahuila, four in Baja California, four in Oaxaca, three in Nuevo León, three in Baja California Sur, two in Puebla, two in Veracruz, two in Chiapas, two in Mexico State, two in Michoacán, and one each in Colima, Durango, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, GuerreroChihuahua, Sonora, Morelos, Guanajuato, and Querétaro.

Hindu kush mountain

The Hindu Kush is a mountain range in eastern and central Afghanistan, northwestern Pakistan, and northwestern India.It is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram Range, and is a subrange of the Himalayas. It is also calculated to be the geographic center of population of the world. The western Safid Koh, the Malmand, Chalap Dalan, Siah Band and Doshakh are commonly referred to as the Paropamise by western scholars, though that name has been slowly falling out of use over the last few decdes.

Rivers that flow from the mountain system include the Helmand River, the Hari River and the Kabul River, watersheds for the Sistan Basin.Numerous high passes kotal transect the mountains, forming a strategically important network for the transit of caravans. The most important mountain pass is the Kotal e Salang it links Kabul and points south of it to northern Afghanistan.

The completion of a tunnel within this pass in reduced travel time between Kabul and the north to a few hours. Previously access to the north through the Kotal e Shibar took three days. The Salang tunnel at and the extensive network of galleries on the approach roads were constructed with Soviet financial and technological assistance and involved drilling miles through the heart of the Hindu Kush.

Before the Salang road was constructed, the most famous passes in the Western historical perceptions of Afghanistan were those leading to India. They include the Khyber Pass in Pakistan, and the Kotal e Lataband east of Kabul, which was superseded in by a road constructed within the Kabul River's most spectacular gorge, the Tang e Gharu. This remarkable engineering feat reduced travel time between Kabul and the Pakistan border from two days to a few hours.

Anamudi mountain

Anamudi a derived word from Tamil in Malayalam meaning The Elephant Peak and Anai mudi in Tamil, meaning elephant's brow as well as Elephant Head or Peak is the highest peak in the Western Ghats in India, having an elevation of metres. It is located in the southern region of Eravikulam National Park at the junction of the Cardamom Hills, the Anaimalai Hills and the Palni Hills. The nearest town is Munnar away.

Anamudi is the highest point in South India, and also the highest point in India outside the Himalaya Karakoram system. This gives Anamudi its relatively large topographic prominence of the associated key saddle being away at. The peak is not exceptionally dramatic in terms of steepness or local relief.The easiest route to the summit of Anamudi is a technically easy hike on grass slopes, starting from a rolling hill plateau with a base elevation of about.

The north and south slopes are gentle, while the east and west slopes are steeper, with more difficult rock faces. The first recorded ascent of the Anamudi was by General Douglas Hamilton of the Madras Army on May but it is likely that there had been earlier ascents by local people.Eravikulam National Park is a national park located along the Western Ghats in the Idukki district of Kerala in India, between latitude and longitude. See:map.

The park is administered by the Kerala Department of Forests and Wildlife, Munnar Wildlife Division, together with the nearby Mathikettan Shola National Park, Anamudi Shola National Park, Pambadum Shola National Park, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary and the Kurinjimala Sanctuary. The Western Ghats, Anamalai Sub Cluster, including all of Eravikulam National Park, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.

Ararat mountain

Rising from the common borders of Turkey and Iran, Mt. Agri Ararat, an inactive volcano capped year round with ice and snow, reaches meters. The Old Testament records that it was on this mountain that Noah's Ark came to rest after the great flood. Southwest of the mountain, the Little Mt. Agri Ararat reaches up to meters. The Serdarbulak lava plateau stretches out between the two pinnacles. Whatever your motivation for visiting this region and exploring the mountain range, climbing the spectacular Agri Ararat is a challenging and rewarding experience.

In the summer, the weather in the area and on Mt. Agri Ararat itself is sunny, warm and dry. However, in the winter and spring, cold and harsh conditions prevail, and mountain climbers occasionally face blizzards and turbulent weather. July, August and September are the months when most world mountain climbers come to the area and when the climb up Agri Ararat is most enjoyable. Despite the usual sunny and clear weather at that time of year, high altitude mountain weather prevails above meters.

The Southern face of the mountain offers the easiest and safest ascent to the summit with the best routes and communication, transportation and safety considerations. It is not advised to climb Mt. Agri Ararat alone and without a guide. The Trabzon Erzurum Teheran international transit highway, an excellent asphalt road, skirts the Western and Southern flanks of Agri Ararat before heading into Iran. Dogubayazit, from Erzurum, and nearby Igdir, the two closest towns to the mountain, are situated on this route. Daily planes, trains, and buses connect Erzurum with Ankara.

The area surrounding Agri Ararat has retained its natural beauty and the local population still engages in the traditional lifestyle. During the summer months, whole villages move to the yayla, the summer pasture, to find fresh grazing for their herds of sheep, goats, cattle and horses. Women continue to weave carpets and kilims in time honoured designs; Örtülü village is particularly renowned as a centre of beautiful handicrafts. Other nearby tourist attractions include the Ishakpasa Palace, a fabulous century castle of a local potentate awaits for the visitors.

Ancient river

The highest mountain range in the world, out of the highest peaks in the world all over feet and a river runs through it. Actually there are several rivers that run through it, but we will only give a picture of one of them. The picture below is a vertical view of the Himalayan Mountains. The bright yellow line marks the border between China Tibet to the north and Nepal to the south. A small piece of India can be seen in the lower right corner.

Mt. Everest at feet is the highest mountain in the world. The summit is under the second in the Everest label. Lhotse label not shown tops out at feet and is just miles to the southeast. Makalu at feet is miles east southeast of Everest and is the highest mountain in the world. Kanchenjunga at is the third highest and can be found on the Nepal India border in the lower right hand corner.

Water drainage from the slopes of Mount Everest is an interesting study in antecedence. Starting from the top of Mt. Everest, the Rongbuk Glacier flows miles to the north northwest into China. The Rongbuk Monastery is miles NNW of Everest and can be reached by road from China. Melt water from the glacier becomes part of the headwaters for the Rong River.miles north-northwest of Everest, the Rong River turns eastward. You can locate this point in the above picture by going NNW from Everest until you intersect a faint yellow road.

The Rong River flows ENE and then ESE until it joins the Arun River some miles northeast of Mt. Everest. This is near the intersection of two local roads faint yellow lines in the pictureThe Arun River flows nearly due south from this point. If you look closely, you can follow its path from the road intersection above, across the China Nepal border the crest of the Himalayas, and through the in Europa.

Euphrates river

The Euphrates River originates in the mountains of Turkey, flows southward into Syria, and then turns east-southeast through eastern Syria and Iraq. Eastern Syria is a dry desert. Areas near the Euphrates have water available for irrigation, and the resulting vegetation shows up as dark areas. If water is not available, the land is dry sand and rock, and has a lighter color.

In the picture above, the Euphrates River is flowing from left to right through a mesa in eastern Syria. The low farmland both upstream and downstream from the mesa is about feet above sea level while the mesa ranges from feet to feet. Information on the origin of the mesa is lacking, and the Google Earth image has relatively low resolution. Thus, its geologic history is not known and the following eyeball analysis by the author should be considered speculative.

Five to ten million years ago the Euphrates River flowed through the valley. The mesa did not exist. Sometime during the last few million years, volcanic eruptions of fluid lava covered the area that is now the mesa. These volcanic eruptions would form temporary dams across the river. The river would quickly overflow interim layers that were built up, and try to start cutting a canyon down through the mesa. However, subsequent eruptions and lava flows would fill in these initial attempts to cut a canyon, and leave a new flat surface.

The volcanic eruptions ended perhaps one to two million years ago Since then the Euphrates has cut down through the mesa to generate its canyon. Ordinary erosion has also removed some of the surrounding terrain that was not protected by the hard lava layer. The steep sides of the canyon plus the fact that they have not eroded very far back from the river indicate that this has all been done very recently.

Yangtze river

China has probably the most widespread ongoing geologic activity in Asia. The downside of this is that they have had many devastating earthquakes that have killed thousand There are multiple areas in China where rivers cut through mountain systems instead of going around them. We will only concentrate on one river, the Yangtze, but will use two pictures. The picture above shows the Yangtze River and some of its tributaries in central China. The Yangtze enters from the lower edge and flows northeastward off the right portion of the top edge. Three major tributaries join at left the Fu, Jialing, and Qu and the combination joins the Yangtze.

Of interest are the ridges that are cut by these rivers. The ridges rise anywhere from to feet above the river systems. They look remarkably similar to the river ridge systems in the northeastern United States. See Ancestral Rivers of the Eastern United States. While very little is known about the uplifted history here in China, the similarity suggests that this also an example of superimposition.

The Wu enters from the right and is no slouch as it cuts across upturned sedimentary ridges to produce a foot deep canyon just inside the right edge. What will be of even more interest will be the Yangtze in the next picture when it cuts to the right, from the lowlands, back into these high ridges.Actual river elevations and the areas between the ridges typically run between and feet above sea level.

The horizontal extent of the picture spans about miles from the bottom edge to the top edge. Keep these dimensions in mind as you view the next picture. The picture above is another view of the Yangtze, but this is further downstream in the famous Yangtze Gorges. The Three Gorges Dam is about linear miles downstream and off the right edge. The Yangtze is cutting across ridge systems that range from feet above sea level. At the right cut, the mountain rises abruptly more than a mile above the river.

Data entry job

I completely understand all the hyped programs that end up scamming their members. I understand the ratio of scams to legitimate programs is and we would expect skepticism because of this. I would like the opportunity to show you who we are, and that we follow a code of business ethics. I want all of our members to be part of something special through the ups and downs, the good and the bad.

It is all about being part of a company and team doing legitimate business. However, I must add we like to focus on the Ups and the Goods of doing this job.If you read through this opportunity and feel this is just another get rich quick scheme, we will completely understand. We hope you will give us a few minutes, so we can try to make you feel more confident in our company and the program we are offering to our team members.We have been offering work from home data entry jobs which include: Traditional Data Entry at home, Phone Transcription, Medical Coding, Business Coding, Legal Transcription, Document Data Recording, Input Data Capturing and many more work-from home data entry jobs. Now we have added a work from home data entry jobs called Global Data Entry and Home Typist which is designed for people with no prior experience in any of the data entry fields listed above.


Everyday more companies are downsizing, moving overseas and outsourcing many of their positions. Because of this, a brand new opportunity has come about. A work from home data entry called Global Data Entry at home, because there is a large amount of companies from all over the world they turn to companies like us, to provide them with workers, and fill many openings in this brand new field. This is considered more Non Traditional Data Entry from home, unlike anything you have ever seen. We will also provide you with a list of Traditional Data Entry Jobs, if you are interested in that field of work. We have designed a program for our team members to take advantage of this fast growing market. You may have come across just a few sites that are offering this type of data entry at home program.

Online job

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India

The Indian subcontinent consists of a number of separate linguistic communities each of which share a common language and culture. The people of India speak many languages and dialects which are mostly varieties of about principal languages. Some Indian languages have a long literary history Sanskrit literature is more than years old and Tamil . India also has some languages that do not have written forms. There are officially recognized languages in India Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were added in each has produced a literature of great vitality and richness.

Though distinctive in parts, all stand for a homogeneous culture that is the essence of the great Indian literature. This is an evolution in a land of myriad dialects. The number of people speaking each language varies greatly. For example, Hindi has more than million speakers, but relatively few people speak Andamanese.Although some of the languages are called tribal or aboriginal, their populations may be larger than those that speak some European languages. For example, Bhili and Santali, both tribal languages, each have more than million speakers. Gondi is spoken by nearly million people. India's schools teach different languages. The nation has newspapers in languages, radio programmes in , and films in.


The Indian languages belong to four language families: Indo-European, Dravidian, Mon Khmer, and Sino Tibetan. Indo European and Dravidian languages are used by a large majority of India's population. The language families divide roughly into geographic groups. Languages of the Indo European group are spoken mainly in northern and central regions.The languages of southern India are mainly of the Dravidian group. Some ethnic groups in Assam and other parts of eastern India speak languages of the Mon Khmer group.


People in the northern Himalayan region and near the Burmese border speak Sino Tibetan languages. Speakers of different languages of the Indo European family make up about three quarters of India's population. Twenty Dravidian languages are spoken by nearly a quarter of the people. Speakers of Mon Khmer languages and Sino Tibetan languages together make up about per cent of the population.

Bhutan

Paro valley is one of the most populated areas of the whole country. The valley of Paro contains a wealth of attractions and requires a few days to be properly explored. Casting a shadow across the town of Paro is the elegant and perfectly symmetrical Rinpung Dzong. Built in by Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, the first spiritual and temporal ruler of Bhutan. Eighteen kms from Paro town on the south side of the valley are the burnt ruins of Drugyel Dzong victorious fortress. It was from this monastery that the Bhutanese repelled several invading Tibetan armies during the th century.

Thimphu, perhaps the most unusual capital city in the world, is a bustling town on the banks of its own river and set gloriously in the hills of its own valley. A regal town, Thimphu is home to the revered Bhutanese Royal family and to several foreign missions and development projects. On the bank of the river lies Tashichho Dzong,the main,the main secretariat building which houses the throne room of His Majesty the king of Bhutan. Five miles from Thimphu stands the Century Simtokha Dzong on a lifty ridge.Built in,the oldest Dzong in the land houses the school for Buddhist studies.The road to Dorchula Pass and on to eastern Bhutan winds its way upwards from Simtokha Dzong.

The road winds up from Simtokha Dzong into pine forest and through small villages for Kms and then opens miraculously onto the northern ridge of the mountain.The view over the Himalayan panoply at Dorchula Pass at Feet is one of the most sepactacular in all Bhutan. Punakha lies about two hours drive from Dorchula down low in its valley.Punakha served as the capital of Bhutan untill. Punakha Dzong was strategically built at the junction of the two rivers in the Century by the first Shabdrung to serve as the religious and admininistrative centre.Punakha Dzong houses sacred temples including the Marchen where the embalmed body of Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal lies in the state.


In the cenre of Bhutan and four hours by road from Wangduephodrang, Tongsa offers a welcome rest to travellers.The approach to the town involves a frustrating trip around Tongsa Valley. A vantage point from the opposite side of the valley,still from Tongsa,provides a spectacular view of Dzong and the town.Like alomost all towns in Bhutan,the secular and the religious centre,the Dzong,dominates the horizon,dwarfing the surrounding buildings. Tongsa is the Royal Family’s ancestral home.Protected from invaders by an impenetrable valley,Tongsa Dzong is an impregnable fortress.The Dzong itself is a labyrinth of temples corridors and offices holding court over the local community.

Austria

The Alps dominate the western and southern parts of Austria while the eastern provinces including Vienna, the capital lie in the Danube basin.Until the end of World War I, Austria had been the centre of a vast empire, which controlled much of central Europe for centuries. Austria is now a federal republic, consisting of nine states.Vienna hosts a number of international organisations, including the Secretariat of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

The Austrian Parliament has two chambers. The National Council, or Nationalrat, has one hundered and eighty three members, who are elected by direct popular vote to serve a four year term. The Federal Council, or Bundesrat, is the upper house with about members who represent each province. Its members serve a four or six-year term Austria has a rich cultural heritage.



Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart occupies a place of his own as a composer, while the music of Franz Schubert also enjoys great popularity. In the world of philosophy and ideas, the work of Siegmund Freud continues to provoke controversy, while Ludwig Wittgenstein was one of the major influences in century philosophical thinking. In art, the paintings of Gustav Klimt from the late are widely admired.


Austria has a mixed industrial and agricultural economy, while tourism is also an important source of income.In cuisine, Austrian specialities such as Wiener Schnitzel and Apfelstrudel have become international dishes which need no translation. The Austrian National Tourist Office trains travel agents to become Austrian Certified Travel Specialists. A list of all travel agents who have gained comprehensive knowledge on Austria and are holding the ACTS status.

Belgium

Belgium is a federal state divided into three regions: Dutch speaking Flanders in the north, francophone Wallonia in the south and Brussels, the bilingual capital, where French and Dutch share official status. There is also a small German speaking minority of some seventy thousand in the eastern part of the country.

Belgium’s landscape varies widely sixty seven kilometres of seacoast and flat coastal plains along the North Sea, a central plateau and the rolling hills and forests of the Ardennes region in the southeast.Brussels hosts several international organizations most of the European institutions are located here as well as the NATO headquarters.Independent since , Belgium is a constitutional monarchy.


The two houses of Parliament are the Chamber of Representatives, whose members are elected for a maximum period of four years, and the Senate or upper house, whose members are elected or co-opted. Given its political make up, Belgium is generally run by coalition governments. Among the best known Belgians are Georges Rémi Hergé, creator of the Tintin comic-strip, writers Georges Simenon and Hugo Claus, composer and singer Jacques Brel and cyclist Eddy Merckx.


Painters like James Ensor, Paul Delvaux and René Magritte are the modern day successors of Rubens and the other Flemish masters of yesteryear.Belgium is famous for its chocolates, which are appreciated the world over. A favourite dish is mussels and chips French fries which, according to legend, are a Belgian invention. The country also produces over one thousand brands of beer.

Cyprus

Cyprus is the largest island in the eastern Mediterranean and is situated south of Turkey. The two main mountain ranges are the Pentadactylos in the north and the Troodos in central and south-western part of the island. Between them is the fertile plain of Messaoria.Cyprus has long been a crossing point between Europe, Asia and Africa and still has many traces of successive civilisations Roman theatres and villas, Byzantine churches and monasteries, Crusader castles and pre historic habitats.

The island’s main economic activities are tourism, clothing and craft exports and merchant shipping. Traditional crafts include embroidery, pottery and copperwork.Traditional local dishes include the meze a selection of appetizers served as a main dish, halloumi cheese and the zivania schnapps.Since Turkey occupied the north of the island in , the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot communities have been separated by the so called Green Line.

Cyprus is well known as the island of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, who, according to legend, was born here.In modern literature, names such as Costas Montis poet and writer and Demetris Gotsis writer stand out, while Evagoras Karageorgis and Marios Tokas are well known for their musical compositions.

Europe is a continent with many different traditions and languages, but also with shared values. The EU defends these values. It fosters co-operation among the peoples of Europe, promoting unity while preserving diversity and ensuring that decisions are taken as close as possible to the citizens.In the increasingly interdependent world of the century, it will be even more necessary for every European citizen to co operate with people from other countries in a spirit of curiosity, tolerance and solidarity.

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic became an independent state in January after Czechoslovakia split into its two constituent parts. Before World War II, Czechoslovakia was one of the ten most industrialised states in the world, and the only central European country to remain a democracy until .The Czech capital, Prague, is more than thousand years old and has a wealth of historic architecture of different styles.

Because of this, the city has become a favoured location for many international film makers.Manufacturing is still a major economic activity, especially the production of automobiles, machine tools, and engineering products. Iron and steel industries are important in Moravia in the east of the country. The chief crops are maize, sugar beet, potatoes, wheat, barley, and rye.

Hills and mountains cover about of the country ideal for skiing, mountain biking and hill walking. Wild boar and foxes are found in the abundant woodlands.The Czech Republic produces world famous beer, including Pilsner. Wine is produced in the southern regions of Moravia and in part of Bohemia.

A record ninehundered natural springs have also ensured that the country produces plenty of mineral water. Traditional dishes include “knedlíky”, a type of dumpling made from potatoes or bread.Famous Czechs include the Art Nouveau artist Alfons Mucha, composers Antonin Dvorák and Bedrich Smetana, marathon runner Emil Zátopek and the writers Franz Kafka and Milan Kundera.

France

France is the largest country in the EU, stretching from the North Sea to the Mediterranean. The landscape is diverse, with mountains in the east and south, including the Alpine peak of Mont Blanc Four thousand eight hunderedand ten metre which is western Europe's highest point. Lowland France consists of four river basins, the Seine in the north, the Loire and the Garonne flowing westwards and the Rhône, which flows from Lake Geneva to the Mediterranean Sea.

The president of the Republic has an important political role. He chairs the meetings of the Council of Ministers cabinet, and retains overall responsibility in key areas of foreign affairs and defence. The day to day running of the country is in the hands of the prime minister. The president is elected by direct popular vote for a period of five years. The parliament consists of a National Assembly, directly elected every five years, and a Senate whose members are chosen by an electoral college.


France has an advanced industrial economy and an efficient farm sector. Main activities include automobile manufacture, aerospace, information technology, electronics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals and fashion.France has produced some of the continent's most influential writers and thinkers from Descartes and Pascal in the seventh century, to Rousseau and Voltaire in the eigthyth, Balzac.

Baudelaire and Flaubert in the ninth and Sartre and Camus in the twentyth. In the last two centuries it has given the art world the works of Renoir, Monet, Cezanne, Gauguin, Matisse and Braque, to name but a few.French cuisine is one of the finest in Europe; cooking and eating are part of French culture and lifestyle.

Germany

Germany has the largest population of any EU country. Its territory stretches from the North Sea and the Baltic in the north to the Alps in the south and is traversed by some of Europe's major rivers such as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe.Germany is a federal republic. The lawmakers at the national level are the Bundestag, whose members are elected every four years by popular vote and the Bundesrat, which consists of representatives of the states Bundesländer.

After the Second World War, Germany was divided into the democratic West and the Communist East German Democratic Republic. The Berlin Wall became the symbol of this division. It fell in and Germany was reunited a year later.German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union. Germany is the world's third largest economy, producing automobiles, precision engineering products, electronic and communications equipment, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, and much more besides.


Its companies have invested heavily in the central and east European countries which joined the EU in .As birthplace of Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven, Johannes Brahms and Richard Wagner, among others, Germany's gift to European classical music is important. In thought and word.

Germany’s huge heritage includes the works of Luther, Goethe, Schiller, Nietzsche, Kant, Brecht and Thomas Mann.Germany is the second largest producer of hops in the world and the country is known for its quality beers. Wine is produced in the Moselle and Rhine valleys. In Deutschland ist jetzt bei drei Menschen das Schweinegrippe Virus festgestellt worden. Bei den Betroffenen handelt es sich um Mexiko Reisende. Für die Bevölkerung in Deutschland wird derzeit keine allgemeine Gefährdung durch die Schweinegrippe gesehen.

United kingdom

The United Kingdom UK consists of England, Wales, Scotland who together make up Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The UK’s geography is varied, and includes cliffs along some coastlines, highlands and lowlands and many islands off the coast of Scotland. The highest mountain is Ben Nevis in Scotland which reaches a height of .

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. The main chamber of parliament is the lower house, the House of Commons, which has members elected by universal suffrage. About people are eligible to sit in the upper house, the House of Lords, including life peers, hereditary peers, and bishops. There is a Scottish parliament in Edinburgh with wide ranging local powers, and a Welsh Assembly in Cardiff which has more limited authority for Welsh affairs but can legislate in some areas.

The English account for more than of the population. The Scots make up nearly and the Welsh and Northern Irish most of the rest. The UK is also home to diverse immigrant communities, mainly from its former colonies in the West Indies, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Africa.The economy one of the largest in the EU is increasingly services based although it maintains industrial capacity in high tech and other sectors. The City of London is a world centre for financial services.

Home of the Industrial Revolution, the United Kingdom has produced many great scientists and engineers including Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin. The father of modern economics, Adam Smith, was a Scot. English literature has produced an endless stream of poets, dramatists, essayists and novelists from Geoffrey Chaucer via Shakespeare and his contemporaries to a plethora of modern writers such as J. K. Rowling and the Nobel Prizewinner, Doris Lessing.